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Date: April 29, 2024 Mon
Time: 11:46 pm
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Results for traffic enforcement
10 results foundAuthor: Hu, Wen Title: Effects of Red Light Camera Enforcement on Fatal Crashes in Large US Cities Summary: Objective: To estimate the effects of red light camera enforcement on per capita fatal crash rates at intersections with signal lights. Methods: From the 99 large US cities with more than 200,000 residents in 2008, 14 cities were identified with red light camera enforcement programs during 2004-08 but not during 1992-96, and 48 cities were identified without camera programs during either period. Analyses compared the citywide per capita rate of fatal red light running crashes and the citywide per capita rate of all fatal crashes at signalized intersections during the two study periods, and rate changes then were compared for cities with and without cameras programs. Poisson regression was used to model crash rates as a function of red light camera enforcement, land area, and population density. Results: The average annual rate of fatal red light running crashes declined for both study groups, but the decline was larger for cities with red light camera enforcement programs than for cities without camera programs (35 vs. 14 percent). The average annual rate of all fatal crashes at signalized intersections decreased by 14 percent for cities with camera programs and increased slightly (2 percent) for cities without cameras. After controlling for population density and land area, the rate of fatal red light running crashes during 2004-08 for cities with camera programs was an estimated 24 percent lower than what would have been expected without cameras. The rate of all fatal crashes at signalized intersections during 2004-08 for cities with camera programs was an estimated 17 percent lower than what would have been expected without cameras. Conclusions: Red light camera enforcement programs reduce the citywide rate of fatal red light running crashes and, to a lesser but still significant extent, the rate of all fatal crashes at signalized intersections. Cities wishing to reduce fatal crashes at signalized intersections should consider red light camera enforcement. Details: Arlington, VA: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 2011. 18p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed February 17, 2011 at: http://www.iihs.org/research/topics/pdf/r1151.pdf Year: 2011 Country: United States URL: http://www.iihs.org/research/topics/pdf/r1151.pdf Shelf Number: 120813 Keywords: Traffic Enforcement |
Author: International Association of Chiefs of Police, Highway Safety Committee Title: Traffic Safety in the New Millennium: Strategies for Law Enforcement A Planning Guide for Law Enforcement Executives, Administrators and Managers Summary: Traffic safety programs form an integral component of the effective, comprehensive law enforcement operation. Unfortunately, not all law enforcement executives recognize this important fact. Other law enforcement issues constantly compete with traffic safety for law enforcement’s attention, and too often traffic safety initiatives take a “back seat” to what are perceived as more important programs. Violent crime, gang violence and the proliferation of illegal narcotics are matters that, to many police executives, far outweigh the need to dedicate time to proactive traffic safety. Nothing could be farther from the truth. Many successful traffic safety initiatives have resulted not only in reductions in crashes, but in additional positive results that benefit our communities in many areas. As one might expect, there are many approaches to traffic safety presently taken by law enforcement in the United States. As we enter the new millennium, emerging trends and new technology will be of the utmost importance. This document will serve as a guidebook for law enforcement executives and their organizations; it will catalog effective strategies and address promising practices for the future. This document addresses elements and core components in human resources, management and technology issues, with a focus on effective traffic safety strategies. These individual strategies discuss background information, possible actions, benefits, and other considerations. The information contained in this document deals with both proven strategies and promising initiatives for the future. A safe and efficient transportation system will provide positive results to our society, and effective traffic safety programs and strategies will ensure success in this endeavor. This document will serve as a menu of effective programs and a roadmap for the journey into a safer millennium. Details: Washington, DC: U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2003. 99p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed April 9, 2012 at: http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/injury/enforce/trafficsafety.pdf Year: 2003 Country: United States URL: http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/injury/enforce/trafficsafety.pdf Shelf Number: 124910 Keywords: Traffic EnforcementTraffic OffensesTraffic Safety (U.S.) |
Author: Bruce, David Title: The Law for Sale: Endemic Corruption in the Johannesburg Metropolitan Police Department Summary: This report focuses on corruption in the Johannesburg Metropolitan Police Department (JMPD). Corruption in traffic enforcement is an issue of special concern. It is widespread and it conveys an implicit message when practised as brazenly as it is by some police officers involved in traffic enforcement, amongst them members of the JMPD. The message is that corruption is acceptable; and that it is a matter of indifference to government representatives. This undermines the credibility of the state system and of any aspirations towards advancing the rule of law. The report starts by discussing survey data from Stats SA that indicates that upwards of 150 000 drivers in Johannesburg are asked to pay bribes annually. The results of two Lead SA surveys are also discussed indicating that corruption in traffic enforcement is especially prominent in Johannesburg and thereby implicating the JMPD. The report then focuses on the experiences of drivers in Johannesburg regarding corruption. It describes what it calls ‘the JMPD routine’ – a technique for soliciting bribes that is widely used by JMPD members. JMPD corruption does not only involve the soliciting of bribes but also involves other forms of criminality that include extortion and acts of robbery that involve snatching or otherwise taking money or other possessions from people who have been stopped. Cases are also reported of JMPD members demanding sexual favours in lieu of ‘payment’. The research on which this report is based found that corruption permeates most areas of the functioning of the JMPD including licensing and the policing of informal traders. These latter JMPD functions will be the subject of future Corruption Watch reports. This report however focuses on corruption in traffic enforcement. The report concludes that the scale of the problem is of such a nature that it is possible that the majority (more than 50%) of JMPD members are involved in corruption. This means that there are unlikely to be any JMPD members who could not identify, by name, several of their colleagues who are involved in bribery; even though they may not be corrupt themselves. Although corruption is acknowledged to be a problem, leadership of the JMPD and representatives of the City of Johannesburg severely understate its scale, insisting that only a small minority of JMPD members are directly implicated in corrupt activities. Data on the small number of cases investigated by the JMPD’s Internal Affairs division is put forward as representative of the scale of the problem, despite persuasive evidence gathered by researchers and the media, as well as the experience of the Johannesburg citizenry, that JMPD corruption is rampant. When the issue of corruption is raised with JMPD leaders their response is also frequently to portray it as a problem that is created by the public. While it is true that many members of the public willingly involve themselves in corrupt transactions, it may be assumed that most people would be afraid to offer bribes if they feared that JMPD members would take action against them for doing so. However, the exact allocation of responsibility between members of the JMPD and the public for the problem of corruption is a secondary matter in this report. The key point is that it is the Johannesburg Metropolitan government and the JMPD who are responsible for maintaining law and order on the roads of Johannesburg and who thus who bear the principal responsibility for addressing corruption. The scale of corruption in fact demonstrates that there are systemic weaknesses in current responses to corruption within the JMPD. An important manifestation of these weaknesses is that although there is an internal investigative and disciplinary system, it is clearly not meeting the demands being placed on it. For example, the JMPD has up to this point never been able to answer questions about how many, if any, members who are involved in corruption have been found guilty in disciplinary proceedings and dismissed from the JMPD. The report concludes with recommendations for addressing this complex problem. However, any effort in this direction must begin by the leadership of the city and the JMPD acknowledging the scale of the problem. Details: Parklands, South Africa: Corruption Watch, 2012. 59p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed May 2, 2012 at: http://us-cdn.creamermedia.co.za/assets/articles/attachments/39016_corruption_watch_report_final.pdf Year: 2012 Country: South Africa URL: http://us-cdn.creamermedia.co.za/assets/articles/attachments/39016_corruption_watch_report_final.pdf Shelf Number: 125116 Keywords: BribesPolice Corruption (South Africa)Police MisconductTraffic Enforcement |
Author: Ross, Matthew B. Title: State of Connecticut Traffic Stop Data Analysis and Findings, 2013-14 Summary: The Alvin W. Penn Racial Profiling Prohibition Act (Public Act 99-198) was first enacted in 1999 and prohibits racial profiling in the State of Connecticut. The law prohibits any law enforcement agency in the state from stopping, detaining, or searching motorists when the stop is motivated solely by considerations of the race, color, ethnicity, age, gender or sexual orientation of that individual (Connecticut General Statutes Sections 54-1l and 54-1m). In 2012 and 2013, the Connecticut General Assembly made several changes to this law to create a system to address concerns regarding racial profiling in Connecticut. In accordance with these changes, police agencies began collecting data pertaining to all traffic stops on October 1, 2013. In 2012, the Racial Profiling Prohibition Project Advisory Board was established to advise the Office of Policy and Management (OPM) in adopting the law's standardized methods and guidelines. The Institute for Municipal and Regional Policy (IMRP) at Central Connecticut State University was tasked to help oversee the design, evaluation, and management of the racial profiling study mandated by Public Act No. 12-74 and Public Act No. 13-75, "An Act Concerning Traffic Stop Information." The project staff worked with the state's Criminal Justice Information System (CJIS) to develop a system to collect consistent and universal traffic stop information and submit it to CJIS electronically on a monthly basis. The project staff enlisted the Connecticut Economic Resource Center, Inc. (CERC) to recommend and conduct an advanced statistical analysis of the data once the data collection system had been deemed to be operating sufficiently. The authors from CERC applied the statistical tests presented in Sections V and VI of the report. In addition, CERC developed and applied the peer group analysis presented along with the other descriptive measures in Section IV. The authors from IMRP conducted the analyses contained in Section IV of the report on the estimated driving population, resident only stops and state average. The body of the report represents collaboration between members from both organizations. The statistical evaluation of policing data in Connecticut is an important step towards developing a transparent dialogue between law enforcement and the public at large. The release of this report is evidence that Connecticut is well positioned to lead the nation in addressing the issue of racial profiling and increasing trust between the public and law enforcement. Although the analysis and findings presented in this report were conducted through a collaboration between IMRP and CERC, the ability to conduct such an analysis is primarily attributable to the efforts of state policy makers and the Racial Profiling Prohibition Project Advisory Board. The advisory board brought a variety of perspectives to the conversation and included members from Connecticut state government, state and local police, researchers, and civil rights advocacy groups. There are a total of 92 municipal police departments: 29 departments employing more than 50 officers, 50 employing between 20 and 50 officers, and 13 with fewer than 20 officers. State police are comprised of 13 distinct troops. Although there are an additional 81 jurisdictions that do not have organized police departments and are provided police services by the state police, either directly or through provision of resident troopers, these stops were categorized with their overarching state police troops. Additionally, a total of 13 special agencies have the authority to conduct traffic stops. This report presents the results from an analysis of the 620,000 traffic stops conducted by the aforementioned agencies during the 12-month study period from October 1, 2013 through September 30, 2014. Details: New Britain, CT: Central Connecticut State University, Institute for Municipal and Regional Policy, 2015. 143p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed July 15, 2015 at: http://s429795233.onlinehome.us/reports/ Year: 2015 Country: United States URL: http://s429795233.onlinehome.us/reports/ Shelf Number: 136055 Keywords: Racial Profiling in Law EnforcementStop and SearchTraffic Enforcement |
Author: Phelps, William Title: An Evaluation of the Idaho State Police Emphasis Patrols in Construction Zones Summary: Throughout the years, the Idaho State Police has been fortunate to receive grant funding through GARVEE bonds that fund overtime for Idaho State Troopers on various portions of Idaho roadways under road construction. These areas are then the staple for extra patrols to ensure traffic rules are being followed. Reducing crashes, DUI's, drugs on roadways, and reducing aggressive driving along with other goals was the purpose of funding overtime for Idaho's State Troopers. The thought was by increasing Trooper visibility everything above should follow. Although necessary, construction on Idaho's busy interstate and highway infrastructure can be dangerous to drivers and construction workers. Of the 332 traffic accidents in work zones throughout Idaho in 2013, 33% resulted in possible injuries and 3 fatalitiesi. The Work Zone Safety and Mobility Program of the Idaho Transportation Department states that safe and efficient Temporary Traffic Control zones are an essential part of highway construction, maintenance operations, and the management of traffic incidents. The transportation department recommends, when appropriate, the use of "law enforcement assistance to enforce traffic laws, affect driver behavior, and help maintain appropriate speeds, improve driver alertness and help address other safety and mobility issues." Thus, the Idaho State Police has received several years of funding for costs associated with non-routine work of uniformed law enforcement personnel to help protect workers and drivers and to maintain safe and efficient travel through highway work zones. Since 2008, the state police has conducted high-visibility saturation patrols in five garvee project locations in Ada and Canyon County. The focus of their efforts are almost exclusively on preventing accidents through the enforcement of related traffic offenses (e.g., speeding, distracted driving, DUI's). At the request of the Idaho State Police, the Idaho Statistical Analysis Center applied for and received a federal grant to research the relationship between enforcement of traffic laws and driver behavior. The primary purpose of this study was to determine if increased patrols changed driver behavior. Details: Meridian, ID: Idaho Statistical Analysis Center, Idaho State Police, 2015. 30p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed August 30, 2016 at: https://www.isp.idaho.gov/pgr/inc/documents/MicrosoftWord-GarveeReport2015.pdf Year: 2015 Country: United States URL: https://www.isp.idaho.gov/pgr/inc/documents/MicrosoftWord-GarveeReport2015.pdf Shelf Number: 140090 Keywords: Distracted DrivingDriving Under the InfluenceSaturation PatrolsTraffic EnforcementTraffic Offenses |
Author: Quintanar, Sarah Marx Title: Man vs. Machine: An Investigation of Speeding Ticket Disparities Based on Gender and Race Summary: This paper analyzes the extent to which police behavior in giving speeding tickets differs from the ticketing pattern of automated cameras. The automated tickets provide an estimate of the population of speeders at a given location, time, and even severity of the violation. The data, obtained from Lafayette, Louisiana, provides a wide range of details concerning characteristics of the violation such as location, date, time of day, legal speed, speed over the limit, day of the week, and also specific details about the ticketed driver. The probability of a ticketed driver being African-American or female is significantly higher when the ticket was given by a police officer in contrast to an automated source, implying that police use gender and race as a determining factor in issuing a speeding ticket. Potential behavioral reasons of this outcome have been discussed. Details: Baton Rouge: Department of Economics Louisiana State University, 2011. 44p. Source: Internet Resource: Working Paper 2009-16: Accessed November 10, 2016 at: http://bus.lsu.edu/McMillin/Working_Papers/pap09_16.pdf Year: 2011 Country: United States URL: http://bus.lsu.edu/McMillin/Working_Papers/pap09_16.pdf Shelf Number: 145089 Keywords: Police BehaviorPolice DiscretionRacial DiscriminationRacial Profiling in Law EnforcementTraffic Enforcement |
Author: Wheeler, Andrew Title: A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation Using Roadblocks and Automatic License Plate Readers to Reduce Crime in Buffalo, NY Summary: Purpose: To evaluate the effectiveness of a hot spots policing strategy: using automated license plate readers at roadblocks. Methods: Different roadblock locations were chosen by the Buffalo Police Department every day over a two month period. We use propensity score matching to identify a set of control locations based on prior counts of crime and demographic factors before the intervention took place. We then evaluate the reductions in Part 1 crimes, calls for service, and traffic accidents at roadblock locations compared to control locations. Results: We find modest reductions in Part 1 violent crimes (10 over all roadblock locations and over the two months) using t-tests of mean differences. We find a 20% reduction in traffic accidents using fixed effects negative binomial regression models. Both results are sensitive to the model used though, and the fixed effects models predict increases in crimes due to the intervention. Conclusions: While the results are mixed, it provides some evidence that the intervention has potential to reduce crime. We suggest that the limited intervention at one time may be less effective than focusing on a location multiple times over an extended period. Details: Unpublished paper, 2016. 19p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed November 10, 2016 at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2781126 Year: 2016 Country: United States URL: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2781126 Shelf Number: 146679 Keywords: Automated License Plate ReadersHot Spots PolicingTraffic Enforcement |
Author: Foster, Lorne Title: Race Data and Traffic Stops in Ottawa, 2013-2015: A Report on Ottawa and the Police Districts Summary: This report provides a city overview of the findings of the Ottawa Police Service's Traffic Stop Race Data Collection Project (TSRDCP), a pioneering community-based research project that involved undertaking the largest race based data collection in Canadian policing history. The project arose from an agreement between the Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC) and the Ottawa Police Services Board (Board), the Ottawa Police Service (OPS). The OHRC and the OPS believe that race based data collection is part of an organizational approach to ensuring bias-neutral policing services. Full information regarding the agreement is available online at ottawapolice.ca/race. The Traffic Stop Race Data Collection Project required police officers to record their perception of the driver's race, by observation only, for traffic stops over a two-year period from June 27, 2013 to June 26, 2015. A total of 81,902 records of traffic stops were examined for this Report. Each record included complete information on race, sex and age, along with complete information on police districts, reasons for traffic stops and outcomes. The record did not include the time of day nor the neighbourhood where the stop occurred. The officers entering the race data reported perceiving the race of the driver prior to the stop in 11.4% of the cases. This research project addresses three issues: INCIDENCES OF TRAFFIC STOPS - Do drivers of different race groups have disproportionately high incidences of traffic stops, when compared with their respective driver populations in Ottawa? Research findings showed that: - The study examines 81, 902 traffic stops where officers recorded their perception of the driver's race: 69.3% White (56,776), 12.3% Middle Easterner (10,066), 8.8% Black (7,238), 4.7% E.Asian/SE Asian (3,875), 2.7% S. Asian (2,195), 1.9% Other racialized minorities (1,545), and .3% Indigenous Peoples (207). - In Ottawa, Middle Easterner and Black groups, irrespective of their sex and age, are the two race groups with disproportionately high incidences of traffic stops. Middle Easterner Drivers were stopped 10066 times, which constituted about 12.3% of the total stops over the two year period. However, these drivers represent less than 4% of the total driving population in Ottawa. This means that Middle Easterner Drivers were stopped 3.3 times more than what you would expect based on their population. Black Drivers were stopped 7238 times, which constituted about 8.8% of the total stops over the two-year period. However, these drivers represent less than 4% of the total driving population in Ottawa. This means that Black Drivers were stopped 2.3 times more than what you would expect based on their population. - With the exception of Indigenous peoples, men aged 16-24 of all race groups (including White) have disproportionately high incidences of traffic stops. The disproportionalities ranged from 64.21% (E. Asian/ S.E. Asian) to 1100.39% (Middle Easterner). - Middle Easterner Male Drivers aged 16-24 were stopped 2302 times, which constituted about 2.8% of the total stops over the two year period. However, these drivers represent less than 0.25% of the total driving population in Ottawa. This means that young Middle Easterner male drivers were stopped 12 times more than what you would expect based on their population. Black Male Drivers aged 16-24 were stopped 1238 times, which constituted about 1.5% of the total stops over the two year period. However, these drivers represent less than 0.2% of the total driving population in Ottawa. This means that young Black male drivers were stopped 8.3 times more than what you would expect based on their population. White Male Drivers aged 16-24 were stopped 6172 times, which constituted about 7.5% of the total stops over the two year period. However, these drivers represent about 4.3% of the total driving population in Ottawa. This means that young White male drivers were stopped 1.7 times more than what you would expect based on their population. REASONS FOR TRAFFIC STOPS - Do racialized minority drivers experience disproportionately high incidences of specific reasons for traffic stops when compared with their White counterparts in Ottawa? Research findings showed that: - The findings showed that the reason most used by police officers in traffic stops is "provincial and municipal offenses". It was used in 79,603 of the 81, 902 traffic stops (97.19%). Police officers did not utilize "provincial and municipal offenses" for traffic stops in a disproportional manner for any racial minority groups. - When compared with the White group, "criminal offences" reason has been used disproportionately by police officers for five of the six racialized minority groups. The data is inconclusive about Indigenous peoples with regard to this issue because the number of stops citing "criminal offenses" was too low to draw any conclusions. - Similarly, "suspicious activities" reason has been used disproportionately by police officers for four racialized minority group - Indigenous peoples (99.37%), Black (148.40%), Middle Easterner (133.70%), and other racialized minorities (132.78%). OUTCOMES OF TRAFFIC STOPS - Do racialized minority drivers experience disproportionately high incidences of specific outcome of traffic stops when compared with their White counterparts in Ottawa? Research findings showed that: - All race groups (including White) have received similar proportions of charges (44.65%) from police officers after traffic stops. - All race groups (including White) have received similar proportions of warnings (41.29%) from police officers after traffic stops. - Indigenous peoples (37.77%), Black (47.28%), Middle Easterner (36.84%), and other racialized minorities (28.21%) groups experienced disproportionately high incidences of "final (no action)" outcomes of traffic stops. This study is a correlational study on the relationship between race, sex, age, and traffic stops in Ottawa. It does not deal with the issue of causality. That is to say, it does not explain why and how these factors are related or not related. For this reason, the findings only provide a big picture of traffic stops in the entire capital city of Ottawa, covering a two-year period from 2013 and 2015 - a picture which provides a fresh and pioneering perspective on race and traffic stops in Canada. Details: Ottawa: Ottawa Police Services Board and Ottawa Police Service, 2016. 72p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed April 19, 2018 at: https://www.ottawapolice.ca/en/about-us/resources/.TSRDCP_York_Research_Report.pdf Year: 2016 Country: Canada URL: https://www.ottawapolice.ca/en/about-us/resources/.TSRDCP_York_Research_Report.pdf Shelf Number: 149850 Keywords: Racial DisparitiesRacial Profiling in Law EnforcementStop and FriskStop and SearchTraffic Enforcement |
Author: Kalinowski, Jesse Title: Endogenous Driving Behavior in Veil of Darkness Tests for Racial Profiling Summary: : Several prominent applications of the Veil of Darkness (VOD) test, where solar variation is used to identify racial profiling in traffic stops, have found reverse discrimination in cities widely purported to disproportionately target minorities. We develop a theoretical model of traffic enforcement and demonstrate that the VOD test for racial profiling cannot distinguish between discrimination and reverse discrimination. In our model, this problem arises because motorists rationally alter their driving behavior when faced with discriminatory policing. For groups that face discrimination, our model implies that motorists who previously did not speed choose to speed in darkness, when demography cannot be observed, thus creating the possibility that the share of stopped minority motorists increases in darkness. We develop a follow-up test for identifying the direction of differential treatment by examining the speed distribution of motorists across daylight and darkness. Using data on traffic stops in Massachusetts made by State and Local Police, we reject the VOD test for equal treatment and demonstrate that driving speeds of stopped AfricanAmericans are higher in darkness consistent with discrimination. Details: Chicago: University of Chicago, 2017. 82p. Source: Internet Resource: Working Papers 2017-017, Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Working Group, 2017: Accessed May 16, 2018 at: https://www.albany.edu/economics/doc/seminar-files/Kalinowski_Ross_Ross_2017_driving-veil-darkness.pdf Year: 2017 Country: United States URL: https://www.albany.edu/economics/doc/seminar-files/Kalinowski_Ross_Ross_2017_driving-veil-darkness.pdf Shelf Number: 149683 Keywords: Racial BiasRacial DiscriminationRacial Profiling in Law EnforcementTraffic Enforcement |
Author: DeAngelo, Gregory Title: Policing for Profit: The Political Economy of Law Enforcement Summary: In recent years numerous observers have raised concerns about "policing for profit," or the deployment of law enforcement resources to raise funds for cash-strapped jurisdictions. However, identifying the causal effect of fiscal incentives on law enforcement behavior has remained elusive. Researchers have given little theoretical attention to the potentially confounding responses of potential offenders to increased revenue-seeking by law enforcers. Moreover, empirical designs have not effectively addressed the endogeneity of the spatial and temporal variation in fiscal incentives to factors that may directly affect law enforcement or offender behavior. We model the effects of fiscal incentives on traffic safety enforcement, finding that rules allocating a greater share of fine revenues to deploying jurisdictions may induce increased enforcement effort by patrol officers, and consequent reductions in unsafe driving behavior, with only indeterminate effects on the frequency of citations. We test this model using daily, monthly, and fully aggregated citation and accident data from Saskatchewan, Canada between 1990 and 2017, for towns policed under the province's contract with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. We find that fiscal rules reducing the share of fine revenue captured by the province in jurisdictions above a sharply defined population threshold increase the frequency and severity of accidents in jurisdictions just above this threshold, but have no or even weakly positive effects on the frequency of citations in these jurisdictions; these results are robust to the use of both data-driven regression discontinuity and local randomization inference strategies. We observe no discontinuities in the accident data at this threshold during the period prior to the introduction of these fiscal rules, in the areas "near" these jurisdictions, within which the province receives 100% of fine revenue throughout our period of interest, or at any of 20 placebo thresholds constructed on either side of the actual population threshold. Details: George Mason Law & Economics Research Paper, 2018. 50p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed September 12, 2018 at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3197705 Year: 2018 Country: Canada URL: https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=4560951061120660060130990100311190740060040040210630370721120951050171010671060660850361260380561100281180811221161240260731160500820050210061140660691050940260050470870190021120800 Shelf Number: 151486 Keywords: Fiscal IncentivesLaw EnforcementPolitical EconomyTraffic EnforcementTraffic Safety |